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Establishing international branch campuses: a framework for assessing opportunities and risks
(Taylor and Francis, 2016) Wilkins, Stephen
At the start of 2016, there were 230 international branch campuses operating worldwide, but of the campuses that were established since the mid-1990s, around 10 per cent have failed. The purpose of this article is to propose a framework that the strategic decision makers in higher education institutions can refer to when evaluating opportunities to develop branch campuses in foreign countries. The framework derives from empirical evidence that was the product of a rigorous search of the literature and other secondary sources, and it has drawn upon business management theories such as institutional theory, Porter’s industry-based view, and Barney’s resource-based view. Thematic analysis was used to identify the following themes, or influencing factors, in the data: environmental, industry, and organisational. The framework provides higher education managers with an analytical tool to guide a process of systematic data collection and analysis, which includes reflection on institutional objectives, resources, and competencies. It is likely that the systematic, data-driven approach promoted by the framework will in future reduce the number of international branch campus failures.
The effects of social identification and organizational identification on student commitment
(Taylor and Francis, 2016) Wilkins, Stephen; Butt, Muhammad Mohsin; Kratochvil, Daniel; Balakrishnan, Melodena Stephens
The purpose of this research is to investigate the effects of social and organizational identifications on student commitment, achievement and satisfaction in higher education. The sample comprised 437 students enrolled in an undergraduate or postgraduate programme in business or management. A model was developed and tested using structural equation modelling. It was found that organizational identification is a stronger predictor of student commitment, achievement and satisfaction than social identification. Although organizational identification was a strong predictor of student satisfaction, student commitment was better at explaining student achievement. The implications for higher education institutions are discussed. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study to examine the effects of organizational identification on student commitment, achievement and satisfaction. The key contribution of the research is in providing support for the hypothesis that organizational identification can influence the attitudes and behaviour of higher education students, as it has been shown to do with employees and consumers.
The use of MOOCs in transnational higher education for accreditation of prior learning, programme delivery, and professional development
(Emerald, 2016) Annabi, Carrie Amani; Wilkins, Stephen
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate how, and the extent to which, massive open online courses (MOOCs) might be used in the accreditation of students’ prior learning, in programme delivery at international branch campuses, and for lecturers’ professional development (PD) in transnational higher education. Design/methodology/approach The data were obtained from two international branch campuses in the United Arab Emirates. The research adopted a qualitative methodology that involved 20 lecturers participating in semi-structured interviews and ten lecturers participating in a focus group. A rigorous process of content analysis was used to analyse and interpret the data. Findings Lecturers in transnational higher education perceived that MOOCs were not suitable for accredited prior learning but that they might be useful as a supplementary resource for student learning and for personal PD. There was a strong belief that as international branch campuses offered a commodified product, MOOCs were unlikely to be adopted as a replacement for traditional programme delivery methods, as students strongly prefer face-to-face teaching and support. Practical implications The research has identified a number of recommendations for higher education institutions operating in transnational settings, which might improve both institutional and individual performance. Institutions that intend to use MOOCs in programme delivery should consider how their students and staff would react to such a move, and how this might impact upon institutional image and reputation. Originality/value Surprisingly, there has been little academic research published on the use of MOOCs in higher education, and to the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study conducted in a transnational education setting. The uniqueness of the environment in which international branch campuses operate, as well as their different objectives and student profiles, provide the rationale for this research.
Consumers’ behavioural intentions after experiencing deception or cognitive dissonance caused by deceptive packaging or slack filling
(Emerald, 2016) Wilkins, Stephen; Beckenuyte, Carina; Muhammad Mohsin, Butt
Purpose The purpose of this study is to discover the extent to which consumers are aware of air filling in food packaging, the extent to which deceptive packaging and slack filling – which often result from package downsizing – lead to cognitive dissonance and the extent to which feelings of cognitive dissonance and being deceived lead consumers to engage in negative post-purchase behaviours. Design/methodology/approach The study analysed respondents’ reactions to a series of images of a specific product. The sample consisted of consumers of fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) in the UK. Five photographs served as the stimulus material. The first picture showed a well-known brand of premium chocolate in its packaging and then four further pictures each showed a plate with a different amount of chocolate on it, which represented different possible levels of package fill. Findings Consumer expectations of pack fill were positively related to consumers’ post-purchase dissonance, and higher dissonance was negatively related to repurchase intentions and positively related to both intended visible and non-visible negative post-purchase behaviours, such as switching brand and telling friends to avoid the product. Furthermore, consumers with low product involvement were less likely to repurchase the brand, and were more willing to engage in visible and non-visible negative behaviours. Research limitations/implications The key message from this study is that consumers’ post-purchase dissonance is likely to damage the firm. Although firms may initially achieve increased sales through deceptive packaging and slack filling, these practices risk damaging a brand’s reputation and consumer loyalty to the brand. Firms need to strike a balance between packaging size and content, and as consumer expectations are likely to vary across different products, individual companies should engage in market research and substantive market testing. Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that investigates antecedents and consequences of cognitive dissonance experienced by consumers which was caused by perceived deceptive packaging and/or slack filling.
Issues and challenges for small countries in attracting and hosting international students: the case of Lithuania
(Taylor and Francis, 2016) Urbanovič, Jolanta; Wilkins, Stephen; Huisman, Jeroen
At the start of 2016, there were 230 international branch campuses operating worldwide, but of the campuses that were established since the mid-1990s, around 10 per cent have failed. The purpose of this article is to propose a framework that the strategic decision makers in higher education institutions can refer to when evaluating opportunities to develop branch campuses in foreign countries. The framework derives from empirical evidence that was the product of a rigorous search of the literature and other secondary sources, and it has drawn upon business management theories such as institutional theory, Porter’s industry-based view, and Barney’s resource-based view. Thematic analysis was used to identify the following themes, or influencing factors, in the data: environmental, industry, and organisational. The framework provides higher education managers with an analytical tool to guide a process of systematic data collection and analysis, which includes reflection on institutional objectives, resources, and competencies. It is likely that the systematic, data-driven approach promoted by the framework will in future reduce the number of international branch campus failures.
Country of origin and country of service delivery effects in transnational higher education: a comparison of international branch campuses from developed and developing nations
(Taylor and Francis, 2016) Chee, Chiu Mei; Butt, Muhammad Mohsin; Wilkins, Stephen; Ong, Fon Sim
Over the last decade, international branch campuses have been established by universities from developing countries as well as developed countries. Little research has been conducted into students’ perceptions of branch campuses from different countries, or how universities from different countries compete in the increasingly competitive market. A framework incorporating the concepts of country of origin and country of service delivery is adopted to assess how potential undergraduate students in Malaysia perceive the home and international branch campuses of universities from the United Kingdom (UK) and India, which are used to represent universities from developed and developing nations. It was found that for a university from a developing nation, students perceived the image, reputation, quality and brand equity of its home campus more positively than its international branch campus. The results suggest that although all universities must devise and implement strategies that enhance the image and reputation of their international branch campuses, institutions from developing countries should seek niche markets where they do not have to compete directly with prestigious universities from developed countries.
Ethical issues in transnational higher education: the case of international branch campuses
(Taylor and Francis, 2017) Wilkins, Stephen
The establishment of an international branch campus can impact upon a diverse range of stakeholders in both home and host countries. Many of the arguments against international branch campuses are based on ethical issues, such as the lack of academic freedom and civil liberties in host countries. Ignoring ethical issues may deny institutions the achievement of legitimacy, which can result in financial losses and reputational damage. Thus, the purpose of this article is to identify the ethical issues that higher education managers should recognise and address when considering the establishment of an international branch campus. A framework based on analysing how home and host country stakeholders might be impacted by the establishment of an international branch campus – and how they might influence higher education institutions – is proposed. It was found that institutions which are flexible, quick to learn, and possess the dynamic capabilities necessary to drive organisational change might be the institutions that have the greatest chance of success in foreign markets. Given that at the start of 2015, at least 24 new international branch campuses were planned or in the process of being built, it is concluded that higher education institutions will have to continue treading the thin line between trying to fit in with their host cultures while simultaneously trying to achieve academic freedom and improve local social, political, and legal conditions.
The effects of employee commitment in transnational higher education: the case of international branch campuses
(SAGE, 2017) Wilkins, Stephen; Butt, Muhammad Mohsin; Annabi, Carrie Amani
Higher education is a labor intensive activity and strong organizational performance depends upon employee commitment. This study analyses antecedents and consequences of employee commitment in universities that are involved in transnational higher education, with a focus on identifying differences between the employees at home and foreign branch campuses. The data for the study were obtained using a questionnaire that was completed by both teaching and non-teaching staff at three institutions in the United Kingdom, three institutions in Malaysia, and two institutions in the United Arab Emirates. A conceptual model was proposed and tested using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that employees at international branch campuses are not as motivated and committed to their organizations as their counterparts at home campuses. The findings suggest that institutions need to employ different and customized human resource strategies at home and foreign campuses, specifically with the aim of improving employee commitment and performance at the foreign campuses.
MNCs and religious influences in global markets: drivers of consumer-based halal brand equity
(Emerald, 2017) Muhammad Mohsin, Butt; Rose, Susan; Wilkins, Stephen; Ul Haq, Junaid
Purpose Multinational corporations (MNCs) that want to compete in markets worldwide should not underestimate the influences of religion on consumer demand. Almost one quarter of the world’s population is Muslim so it is important for MNCs to get into the Muslim mind set when operating in countries where Islam has a large influence. The purpose of this paper is to assess the extent to which consumer-based brand equity in a religious market results from the psychological and behavioural characteristics of consumers rather than from product characteristics. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative survey method was adopted, using a total sample of 551 Muslim consumers in Malaysia and Pakistan. A holistic model conceptualising three potential psychological and behavioural predictors of consumer-based halal brand equity (CBHBE) was created and then tested using structural equation modelling. Findings The strength of an individual’s religious identity was found to be a strong predictor of consumer halal choice behaviour and perceived self-expressive religious benefits. Consumers’ halal choice behaviour and perceived self-expressive benefits directly predict CBHBE. Moreover, consumer halal choice behaviour partially mediates the relationship between self-expressive benefits and CBHBE. Practical implications The authors conclude that firms targeting Muslim consumers can maximise CBHBE by focussing their marketing strategies on the three psychological and behavioural constructs identified in the model. For example, by using halal certification logos and providing convincing information about the halalness of their brand, businesses can facilitate Muslim consumers’ search processes in relation to their choice behaviour. Originality/value The study contributes to the existing international branding literature in two main ways. First, it introduces and defines the concept of CBHBE. Second, it identifies and empirically validates the important psychological and behavioural predictors of CBHBE.
Transnational higher education: the importance of institutional reputation, trust and student-university identification in international partnerships
(Emerald, 2018) Wilkins, Stephen; Muhammad Mohsin, Butt; Heffernan, Troy
This research assesses the extent to which the critical relational variables of university reputation, student trust, and student-university identification influence student behaviour towards transnational education partnerships. Students undertaking British degrees at two transnational partnership locations (Hong Kong, n = 203 and Sri Lanka, n = 325) completed a quantitative survey questionnaire. A conceptual model was developed and tested using structural equation modelling. University reputation and student trust were found to be significant predictors of student identification with each partner institution, and student-university identification was a significant predictor of student satisfaction, loyalty, and extra-role behaviours toward both the local and foreign educational organisations. The findings suggest that student relationship management strategies should focus on strengthening the higher education institution’s reputation, and increasing the students’ trust and identification with the institution. Moreover, universities should also assess potential partners for these qualities when entering into transnational education partnerships. Drawing on theories of social and organisational identification, this is the first study to consider student-university identification as the linchpin between the exogenous constructs of reputation and trust, and the endogenous constructs of student satisfaction, loyalty, and extra-role behaviours in both the international education and international business literatures.
The influence of organisational identification on employee attitudes and behaviours in multinational higher education institutions
(Taylor and Francis, 2018) Wilkins, Stephen; Muhammad Mohsin, Butt; Annabi, Carrie Amani
In order to operate effectively and efficiently, most higher education institutions depend on employees performing extra-role behaviours and being committed to staying with the organisation. This study assesses the extent to which organisational identification and employee satisfaction are antecedents of these two important behaviours. Key objectives of the research were to identify possible antecedents of organisational identification and to discover whether the consequences of organisational identification vary among the employees of multinational universities at home and foreign campuses. We developed a model that was tested using structural equation modelling, which assesses the influences of organisational identification on employee satisfaction, extra-role behaviours and turnover intentions. All of the paths in our model were significant, but employee identification, satisfaction and extra-role behaviours were lower at foreign branches than at the home campuses of universities, and turnover intentions were higher. These results suggest that higher education institutions need to implement different human resource strategies at home and foreign branches, with a focus on improving organisational identification at the foreign subsidiaries.
Achieving legitimacy in cross-border higher education: institutional influences on Chinese international branch campuses in South East Asia
(SAGE, 2018) He, Lan; Wilkins, Stephen
All universities must achieve legitimacy, as this is essential to attract students, staff and resources, including funding. In order to achieve legitimacy in transnational higher education, universities must conform to the rules and belief systems in the host countries. Adopting a case study approach, this research aims to investigate the different institutional influences on three Chinese international branch campuses (IBCs) that operate in South East Asia. The institutional factors behind the strategies taken in establishing and operating such branch campuses are discussed, as well as the different legitimacy building strategies adopted to counteract the liability of foreignness in the host countries. It was found that legitimacy is established through three modes: legitimacy conformity, selective legitimacy conformity/nonconformity and legitimacy creation, which are adopted according to the IBC’s dependence on local resources and the strength of the institutional forces in the host country.
The benefits and drawbacks of transnational higher education: myths and realities
(2018) Wilkins, Stephen; Juusola, Katariina
The purpose of this article is to analyse some of the key ongoing debates in transnational higher education (TNHE). First, we discuss a selection of the claimed benefits and drawbacks of TNHE for home and host country stakeholders (students, governments and institutions), and then we suggest alternative realities, for which there appears to be evidence in practice. It is concluded that (1) recent TNHE developments on the provision side act as a counterforce to the spread of neo-colonialism; (2) international branch campus development continues but there is evidence that the forms, motives, and markets of these initiatives are changing; (3) distance/online/MOOC programs do not pose a threat to the sustainability of other forms of TNHE; (4) the majority of TNHE programs are of acceptable quality due to high levels of competition in international higher education markets and increased regulatory demands from quality assurance agencies; and (5) these forces also contribute to students generally being satisfied with their TNHE study experience.
International brand alliances and co-branding: antecedents of cognitive dissonance and student satisfaction with co-branded higher education programs
(Taylor and Francis, 2018) Wilkins, Stephen; Muhammad Mohsin, Butt; Heffernan, Troy
The study investigates how in international partnerships the brand credibility of each partner, student-institution identification with each partner, and perceived service quality relate to student satisfaction. A structured survey questionnaire was completed by 528 students taking a co-branded higher education program in Hong Kong or Sri Lanka. The results indicate that the brand credibility of a foreign institution is a stronger influencer on student identification with the foreign institution as compared to the relationship between credibility and identification with the local partner. The negative relationship between organizational identification and cognitive dissonance for each institution in the partnership is also stronger for the foreign institution. As the popularity of international partnerships and co-branded higher education programs continues to grow, the importance and dominance of foreign brand credibility and student identification with foreign institutions is recognized.
The resilience of the MBA in emerging economies: student motivations for wanting an MBA in China and the United Arab Emirates
(Taylor and Francis, 2018) Wilkins, Stephen; He, Lan; Zhu, Li; Elmoshnib, Mohammad
In recent years, domestic demand for MBAs has fallen in most major Western markets but has increased or remained stable in emerging economies such as China and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which are the two countries globally that host the largest numbers of international branch campuses. Thus, this research aimed to discover why students in China and the UAE still want an MBA. A survey questionnaire was completed by a total of 354 MBA students, at two universities in China and two universities in the UAE. Some of the results were surprising and unexpected. For example, recognition, prestige and networking – all key features in Chinese and Emirati societies – were found not to be key motivators for wanting an MBA. Instead, the desire to acquire knowledge and skills was the strongest motivator among respondents, accounting for 32.4 per cent of variance. This was followed by reasons associated with intrinsic benefits. The findings have implications for institutional strategy, curriculum design, programme delivery and the marketing of programmes.
Dual consumer–organisation identification in international alliances and partnerships: consumers’ supportive intentions towards local and foreign firms
(Taylor and Francis, 2018) Wilkins, Stephen; Muhammad Mohsin, Butt; Heffernan, Troy
This study investigates whether firms that are evaluating potential partners might benefit from considering how consumers view these organisations, specifically the extent to which consumer identification with local and foreign partners influences consumer satisfaction with a co-branded product and consumers’ post purchase/consumption supportive intentions toward each partner. Data came from institutions of higher education in Hong Kong and Sri Lanka that operate in collaboration with a foreign partner. A conceptual model was developed and then tested using structural equation modelling. Dual consumer-organisation identification was found to be a significant predictor of consumer satisfaction with the co-branded product and consumers’ supportive intentions toward each partner. Furthermore, the perceived identity attractiveness of each partner was significantly related to the consumers’ identification with each partner. The results suggest that organisations which indulge in collaborative arrangements with foreign firms should recognise that each partner plays a significant and distinct role in generating consumer satisfaction and positive post-purchase/consumption behaviours.
Emerging financial risks from climate changes on building assets in the UK
(Emerald Publishing Limited https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/F-05-2017-0054/full/html, 2018-08) Alzahrani, Abdullah; Boussabaine, Halim; Almarri, Khalid
Purpose – The different scenarios of climate change, such as floods, temperature change and storms, are considered the main drivers influencing the building sector. Understanding how and when these climatic risks will emerge, specifically financial risks, is pivotal in dealing with these risks and applying the adaptation and mitigation strategies so as to minimise the effects and damages. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to discover the financial risks emerging from climate change impact on the building sector and determine the timescale of occurrence for such risks. Design/methodology/approach – The research methodology formulated in this study is founded on a systematic literature review and statistical analysis. Built on this, the potential financial risks emerging from climate change scenarios (CCS) were identified and designed as a questionnaire to collect data from UK expert professionals. Statistical methods were used to rank and compare the outcomes of the survey. Findings – The research observed that around 40 per cent of the participants in this study indicated that one-third of the total identified financial risks (23 factors) would emerge within 5-10 years. The most important factors are increased insurance excess and additional expense in insuring buildings in flood risk zones, whilst the least important financial risks are inability to repay debts and un-insurability because of climate change. Research limitations/implications – This study is limited to the UK, and regional implications are not covered. However, it is a starting point. Originality/value – The main contribution of this research project is establishing and developing clusters of the potential risks emerging from CCS, which can assist professionals in the building sector in the management and development of strategies to cope with these emerging risks.
Comparative analysis of the value for money factors of PPPs between the UAE and the UK
(Taylor & Francis https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15623599.2018.1544450, 2018-12) Almarri, Khalid
Public private partnerships (PPP) procurement instruments have been very popular tools for developing projects around the world. This is largely due to their success in bringing quality, efficiency, innovation, funds, experience and most importantly risk sharing to the projects they are involved in. This study aims to pinpoint the value for money (VFM) factors that are needed to implement PPP mechanisms in transitional economies, where the United Arab Emirates (UAE) is taken as a case study, whose findings will be contrasted to that of a UK sample, a developed economy. Relevant data was collected through a questionnaire to establish the VFM factors for each of the two countries. In this study, data was collected from 30 participants in the UAE, and 62 participants residing in the UK. A comparative analysis between the results of both countries revealed a great deal of similarity of the significant impact of the VFM factors on the assessment of PPP. The same four factors were chosen as the most important ones by both samples out of the sixteen factors for delivering VFM outcomes. These factors were optimized risk allocation, competitive bid process, improved services to the community, and clear output specification. This study contributed to practice by highlighting to the sponsors the most important VFM factors and group of factors to consider when assessing the VFM of any potential PPP project. This study also contributed to research in the field of PPPs in the UAE and the UK. The comparative analysis between the two countries highlighted the similarities and differences in the practice and opened areas for future consideration.
The return of China’s soft power in South East Asia: an analysis of the international branch campuses established by three Chinese universities
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2019) He, Lan; Wilkins, Stephen
The purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between China’s soft power and the international branch campuses (IBCs) established overseas by Chinese universities, and to identify which aspect of China’s soft power has the greatest impact on these campuses. We adopted a qualitative research design that involved interviews with managers, faculty and staff at three Chinese international branch campuses in Laos, Malaysia and Thailand. Our findings suggest that China is leveraging its existing soft power to assist or promote its education export, and China’s soft power is returning to South East Asia. Although each of the three IBCs contributes to disseminating China’s soft power to a certain extent, their effort is still quite limited. The aspect of China’s soft power that has the greatest influence on the Chinese IBCs is the necessity of the Chinese language, as well as Chinese cultural history and heritage. Another important factor is the economic power of China, albeit a type of hard power. It is China’s rapid economic development that is driving students’ desire to take courses delivered in Chinese, and to learn the Chinese language at these branch campuses. The study’s findings have implications for policy makers, educators and researchers with an interest in IBCs.
The role of theory in the business/management PhD: how students may use theory to make an original contribution to knowledge
(Elsevier, 2019) Wilkins, Stephen; Neri, Selina; Lean, Jonathan
This research investigates how PhD students learn about theory. The paper offers guidance on how theory may be selected and used by students, and the steps that students may take to achieve the goal of making an original contribution with their research. The data used in this study came from an online questionnaire survey completed by 62 individuals who teach and/or supervise/advise PhD students in business schools. The job titles of participants included Professor, Head of Department, and Director of PhD Programme. Our survey participants reported that high proportions of PhD students struggle to understand the role of theory in their research; how to create a theoretical framework/model; and how to make a theoretical contribution with their research. A majority of the survey participants agreed that students need more teaching on theory and that it is the responsibility of business schools to determine the structure, content and delivery of PhD programmes. Schools must also provide the necessary resources, including academic staff and learning materials. The paper concludes with sets of recommendations for PhD students, educators, and business schools.

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